With large populations come formidable challenges, particularly in the realm of health and hygiene. In the last century, upholding sanitary conditions in urban areas has remained a persistent challenge, particularly in a nation that houses over 1.5 billion people. India grapples with a myriad of issues- inadequate infrastructure for sanitation, lack of public toilets, and poor waste management practices. In densely populated cities, the struggle intensifies as sanitation and cleanliness management falters. India's rapid urbanization has outpaced the development of sanitation infrastructure and cleanliness issues have deeply entrenched in the nation's built environment.
Historical, social, economic, and infrastructural factors have collectively influenced significant shifts in India's urban sanitation landscape. Indian cities - especially those dealing with high population density, poverty, and inadequate sanitation - have long been susceptible to diseases. Dense urban centers breed diseases at an accelerated pace, generate substantial waste and sewage, and contaminate shared resources, resulting in unhygienic living conditions.
The purpose of urban sanitation is to mitigate health risks by managing factors within the urban environment that can contribute to health problems. The significance of urban sanitation in India is diverse - it profoundly impacts public health, environmental sustainability, and quality of life. As India's urban population grows and urbanization progresses at full tilt, ensuring clean and hygienic living conditions becomes challenging. Inadequate urban sanitation can propagate waterborne diseases, inflate healthcare costs, and deteriorate the quality of life for millions. It also poses severe environmental threats like water pollution and ecosystem degradation. In countries with massive populations, the existing infrastructure is often overburdened, leading to frequent breakdowns and escalating maintenance costs.
The Past
Urban sanitation hasn't always been a challenge in India. The nation boasts the legacy of one of the world's first civilizations that developed a sophisticated water supply and sewage system—the Bronze-age Indus Valley Civilization. This ancient civilization demonstrated a deep understanding of sanitation and urban planning. Its towns exhibited meticulous grid-like layouts with well-planned drainage systems that efficiently directed wastewater and rainwater away from residential areas. Homes featured private bathrooms and drainage systems, while public wells and bathing platforms were ubiquitous, revealing a community-oriented commitment to cleanliness and health.
A pivotal phase in India's sanitation history evolved during its colonial rule. From the mid-nineteenth century, public health gained prominence in Western European cities. British India mirrored this concern, resulting in the large-scale demolition of overcrowded and substandard housing in cities like Delhi. While purportedly driven by public health interests, it's believed that over a third of Delhi's transformation was a British tactic to assert control.
Before imperial rule, indigenous principles guided sanitation, health, and environmental practices in Indian settlements. Traditional infrastructure and healthcare systems played an integral role in shaping the built environment. With the onset of municipalization, British administrators embraced sanitary reform and the overhaul of infrastructure, including drainage, water supply, and waste disposal, in their quest to transform Indian cities into Western-style modern metropolises. Urban sanitation efforts in India largely reflected the principles of the British public health movement. Indian cities were reshaped, shifting away from existing localized sanitary infrastructure in favor of Western solutions.
The Present
Today, Indian cities continue to rely on modernized urban sanitation infrastructure but are unable to scale to meet the needs of a rising population. Rapid urbanization has strained existing urban infrastructure and sanitation facilities. The nation's cash-strapped municipalities, along with a shortage of trained urban managers, remain ill-equipped to confront this problem. Census data reveals that about 46 percent of Indian households lack indoor toilets, with 49 percent of the population resorting to open defecation. The remaining population depends on public toilets. Forty percent of India's waste remains uncollected and untreated, with human sewage directly flowing into rivers in many cities.
Income inequality in India exacerbates these issues, with poorer communities often lacking access to basic sanitation facilities. This, in turn, leads to unregulated waste disposal and unsanitary living conditions. While Indian society upholds strong values of cleanliness in households, most public spaces suffer from poor civic cleanliness as they are considered non-personal spaces.
The COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 drove urban sanitation to the forefront of public discourse. India's densely populated urban regions posed unique challenges in combating the virus, exposing the shortcomings of the sanitation systems and practices. The pandemic also highlighted the inequality and unsustainability inherent in the country's urbanization process. It was a stark reminder of urban dwellers' vulnerability to respiratory illnesses caused by the country's high levels of air pollution.
Government reforms have delivered positive outcomes in the advancement of urban sanitation facilities. The COVID-19 pandemic expedited the adoption of technology in urban sanitation. Contactless sanitation facilities, automatic sensors in public restrooms, and the use of data analytics for monitoring and maintaining sanitation infrastructure became prevalent.
In 2014, the Indian Government launched a $10 billion campaign, the Swachh Bharat Abhiyan (Clean India campaign), intending to improve sanitation facilities across the country. The campaign sought to eliminate open defecation by installing more toilets, improve waste disposal practices, and educate citizens about the relationship between sanitation and public health. As the world's most extensive sanitation drive, the campaign sparked a revival of indigenous understandings of health and sanitation that had been overshadowed during colonial rule. Behavioral change is a pivotal aspect of urban sanitation in India. The campaign's localized approach was successful on this front.
A critical aspect of the future of urban sanitation in India revolves around behavioral change, an area where localized strategies have proven effective. Government data reveals significant progress in sanitation across India, including the construction of over 100 million individual household toilets in rural areas, an additional 6 million in urban areas, and nearly 6 million community and public toilets in urban regions. This collective effort has led to more than 4,234 cities and over 600,000 villages achieving open defecation-free status.
Sanitation is more important than political independence - Mahatma Gandhi
The Future
While India's strides in the area of sanitation are undeniable, the path forward remains tough. Public funding is often directed toward Class I cities, partly due to their visibility. In regards to sanitary issues, the country requires an approach that caters to urban and rural areas contextually. At present, India exhibits a drastic improvement in terms of urban cleanliness and sanitation facilities as awareness and interest spread.
In an urbanized world, cities play a key role in shaping healthy futures. Better-managed cities, equipped with improved services, contribute significantly to health, governance, environmental cleanliness, dignity, and economic growth. Apart from benefitting health and the environment, urban sanitation aids urban development and planning by attracting investments and fostering a sense of well-being among the urban population. Government initiatives such as the Swachh Bharat Abhiyan emphasize the importance of urban sanitation in the national policy agenda and its critical role in ensuring citizens' quality urban life.
India's ongoing battle with urban sanitation stems from a complex combination of historical, economic, social, and environmental factors. Confronting these multifaceted issues demands an all-round approach comprising of infrastructure development, awareness campaigns, community engagement, and governmental initiatives.
This article is part of an ArchDaily series titled India: Building for Billions, where we discuss the effects of population rise, urbanization, and economic growth on India’s built environment. Through the series, we explore local and international innovations responding to India’s urban growth. We also talk to the architect, builders, and community, seeking to underline their personal experiences. As always, at ArchDaily, we highly appreciate the input of our readers. If you think we should feature a certain project, please submit your suggestions.
