100 Years of Modernism

Boston City Hall, one of the most debated examples of Brutalist architecture in the United States, has significantly transformed since its conception. Designed by Kallmann, McKinnell, and Knowles and completed in 1968, the fortress-like concrete exterior and geometric austerity have long divided public opinion. Critics, including a former mayor, called for its demolition for decades arguing that its imposing design was inhospitable, inefficient, and most importantly, not beautiful. However, rather than tearing it down, Boston has chosen to renovate and revitalize the structure, demonstrating that contested Brutalist architectural styles can be adapted for a more sustainable future.

Located on the top of the Boa Viagem viewpoint in the city of Niterói, the Niterói Contemporary Art Museum - MAC was designed by architect Oscar Niemeyer. Inaugurated in 1996, it is a modern architectural masterpiece dedicated to housing a collection of Brazilian contemporary art from the 1960s to the 1990s. Rising above the cliff like a lighthouse, it appears to float in the air, resting on a water basin. Facing Rio de Janeiro’s Guanabara Bay in Brazil, its circular lines and revolutionary double-curved form stand out on the horizon, offering an open plaza of 2,500 square meters alongside a reflective pool that gives the structure a remarkable sense of lightness.

Brutalist architecture in the United States is a monument to collective postwar optimism and reassurance that the city and federal governments are in authority. Conceived as an embodiment of strength and efficiency, Brutalist structures were quickly adopted for the architectural language of civic and governmental institutions in the mid-to-late twentieth century in the United States. Towering monoliths of raw concrete rose across the nation, projecting an image of institutional permanence while simultaneously provoking debate over their social and psychological impact.

Inaugurated in 1991, the Maestro Francisco Paulo Russo State Theater in Araras is considered one of the city's and the region's main cultural venues. Designed by architect Oscar Niemeyer, one of the leading figures of the Modern Movement, the theater was equipped with all the necessary infrastructure to host local, national, and international cultural events between 1995 and 2005. Niemeyer left behind a legacy in which his signature free-form architectural style integrates influences from various sources while also engaging in a dialogue with the identity of a tropical country.

Modernism, a movement that sought to break away from traditional forms and embrace the future, laid the groundwork for many technological and digital advancements in contemporary architecture. As the Industrial Revolution brought about mass production, new materials, and technological innovation, architects like Le Corbusier, Walter Gropius, and Mies van der Rohe championed the ethos of "form follows function" and a rational approach to design. Their principles resonate in the digital age, where computational design and high-tech materials redefine form and construction.

The complex relationship between architectural education and modernist principles in Brazil raises important questions about contemporary architectural practice. To explore this topic, we invited five professors from different Brazilian universities to share their perspectives: Eduardo Lopes (Universidade do Vale do Itajaí), Eduardo Westphal (Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina), Fábio Mosaner (Universidade Federal de Pernambuco), Marta Bogéa (Faculdade de Arquitetura e Urbanismo da Universidade de São Paulo), and Rodrigo Bastos (Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina). Their insights highlight modernism's lasting influence on architectural education while raising key questions for the current architectural debate.

Wars, decolonization, economic crises, civil movements, and industrial-technological revolutions: the 20th century was a period of radical and far-reaching transformations. These upheavals reshaped societies and redefined how people expressed their evolving aspirations, with architecture leading the way. Machines and industrialization promised technological progress and modernization, advocating for a clean break from the ornamented, historically rooted styles of the past while embracing a vision focused on functionality, efficiency, and innovation. This shift, embodied by modernism, introduced new concepts, methods, and material uses—all shaped through experimentation.

Brazilian modern architecture is often celebrated as a landmark of innovation and national identity, projecting the country onto the international stage with iconic works and a distinctive aesthetic. However, recent research and publications have highlighted its deep entanglement with colonial narratives, both in its influences and its social impact. Although modernism emerged as an attempt to break away from European academic traditions, it remained dependent on foreign references and incorporated strategies of domination that echoed colonial logic.

Park Hill, a large social housing complex in Sheffield, stands out as one of the most ambitious examples of modernist architecture in post-war Britain. Designed in 1961 by Jack Lynn and Ivor Smith, its innovative concept of "streets in the sky" aimed to combine high-density housing with the community spirit of traditional neighborhoods. By the late 20th century, the complex had fallen into severe neglect, marked by social problems and structural degradation that undermined both its functionality and reputation. Gradually, Park Hill became synonymous with the failure of modernism, carrying a heavy social stigma and marginalizing its residents. Starting in the 2000s, significant efforts began to reverse this narrative through a two-phase revitalization process. The first phase, led by Urban Splash in collaboration with the architectural firms Hawkins\Brown and Studio Egret West, focused on preserving and enhancing the building's historical elements while introducing modern interventions to create a livable, functional, and attractive space. This stage demonstrated the potential of adaptive reuse in revitalizing communities and reclaiming architectural icons. The second phase of the renovation, carried out by the firm Mikhail Riches, sought to build on this initial work by introducing new elements that deepened the connection between the existing spaces and contemporary living. With an approach that combined historical sensitivity and architectural innovation, Mikhail Riches continued the process of transforming Park Hill into a landmark example of how modernist architecture can be adapted to meet current needs without losing its original identity.

In late 2024, an important addition was made to the growing literature on Modern architecture in Africa. "Modernism in Africa: The Architecture of Angola, Ghana, Mozambique, Nigeria, Rwanda, South Africa, Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda" was published by Docomomo International and Birkhäuser, shedding light on multiple previously unpublished buildings. The book has a focus on education, although other building types are included. Amongst these are several university buildings in Nigeria which are explored here. Like other Modern buildings on the continent, they illustrate historical narratives of independence, decoloniality, international relations, and architectural education.

When discussing modernist living, several iconic private residential projects may first come to mind—Le Corbusier's Villa Savoye, the Case Study Houses, most notably by Richard Neutra, Pierre Koenig, and Charles and Ray Eames, as well as the glass houses by Mies van der Rohe and Philip Johnson. Most of these projects exemplified an idealized vision of modern living, set in picturesque landscapes and characterized by experimentation with new construction methods, materials, and spatial concepts. Their designs embraced openness, blurring the boundaries between private and public spaces, largely unburdened by constraints such as density, efficiency, accessibility, public transit integration, or communal considerations.

At the intersection of the inevitable influence of the international modern movement and Argentinian architectural tradition, the Grupo Austral emerges as a collective of architects proposing a reinterpretation of Le Corbusier's rationalism, adapting it to the particularities of the local context. In this framework, we can speak of an international architecture that is not merely incorporated but can be considered "appropriated" architecture, meaning it is rooted in Argentina's climatic conditions, lifestyles, and local materials. This leads us to question: How does European architecture correspond with the local? Is it the product of similar situations or a process of transferring architectural images, as has happened throughout history? Is it a mix of both factors? Can we talk about appropriated architecture?

Modernism emerged in the early 20th century as a revolutionary movement that rejected historical styles, prioritizing functionality, innovation, and rationality. Grounded in the promise of industrial progress, architects like Walter Gropius, Le Corbusier, and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe championed using new materials and construction methods, striving for a universal architectural language. Their work introduced radical ideas: open floor plans, expansive glazing for natural light, and pilotis that elevated structures, symbolizing a new architectural era. However, alongside its groundbreaking ideas, modernism's relationship with sustainability has sparked ongoing debates.

Mid-century modernism, celebrated for its simplicity, functionality, and direct connection with nature, is often associated with urban and suburban environments. However, its principles found fertile ground in the rural landscapes of the United States East Coast. The post-war architectural movement, characterized by innovative materials, clean lines, and harmony with natural surroundings, reveals its adaptability in the hands of architects and craftsmen working in rural regions of the East Coast. Although associated with metropolitan areas, its adoption in rural settings reveals a compelling story of cultural and environmental adaptation.

When India gained independence in 1947, the nation faced a decision that would determine the course of its architectural future: brick or concrete. A seemingly mundane choice of material was rooted in a deeper philosophical divide between two potential outcomes for post-colonial India's built environment. Pioneering figures in India's struggle for independence held opposing views - Mahatma Gandhi advocated for traditional craftsmanship while Jawaharlal Nehru embraced modernism. The architecture one sees in the subcontinent today is a mosaic of both, begging the question: was modernism in India a foreign imposition or a celebrated import?

In the heart of Cairo, amid its historic landmarks and evolving urban fabric, a distinct modernist architectural movement took shape in the 1950s and 60s. It reflected the city's response to rapid political, economic, and social changes. When it arrived, modernism in Cairo was not just an imported style but a "pragmatic response to the needs of a growing city." Architects focused on functionality, efficiency, and adapting designs to the local climate and cultural context. Following the 1952 revolution, Egypt underwent significant transformations under President Gamal Abdel Nasser's leadership. In fact, the government sought to build a new national identity that reflected progress and the nation's self-sufficiency. Architecture played a crucial role in this effort, with a strong focus on modernization and development. The state invested in large-scale projects to accommodate the needs of a rapidly growing population and expanding industries. This period marked a shift from colonial-era influences toward a search for a distinct architectural identity that aligned with the political and social aspirations of the time.

Modernism in architecture emerged at the beginning of the twentieth century, fueled by advancements in science and engineering and a deliberate departure from historical styles. It championed a focus on social equity, urban development, efficiency, and functional design, marking a significant shift in architectural philosophy. Originating primarily in Europe and the United States, modernism captivated the global imagination with its innovative redefinition of space and architecture. Its spread to Asia was facilitated by cross-cultural exchanges—East Asian architects who studied under prominent modernists and European architects working in East Asia through international collaborations or colonial-era influences.

The demolition of Hotel Jugoslavija, a notable example of modernist architecture in Belgrade, has begun, making way for new development in the city's rapidly changing urban landscape. Constructed in 1969 in New Belgrade, the hotel was once among the largest and most prominent in Europe, reflecting the aspirations of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SFRY) during its peak. Designed by Zagreb architect Lavoslav Horvat, the eight-story hotel was a key project under the leadership of Josip Broz Tito. It showcased the modernist principles of the time, combining functionality with imposing architectural forms. Its interiors featured luxurious details, including a Swarovski chandelier comprised of 40,000 crystals, which underscored the building's significance as a flagship of Yugoslavia's international presence.